Sigmund Freud

　　Pre-reading

　　Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the father of psychoanalysis, was an Austrian physiologist, medical doctor, psychologist, and one of the most influential and controversial thinkers of the 20th century.

　　Working together with his older Viennese colleague and mentor Joseph Breuer, who introduced him to the case study of a patient known as Anna O., Freud with Breuer published the work Studies on Hysteria in 1895. However, Breuer did not share Freud’s view on sexuality as a cause for hysteria. While the friendship and collaboration soon ended, Freud continued his work in the development of talk therapy as a treatment for mental illness.

　　The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), Freud’s personal favorite, formalized much of his psychoanalytic theory. Some of his major works include Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), Totem and Taboo (1913), and The Future of an Illusion (1927). His work and theories helped shape our views of childhood, personality, dreams, sexuality and therapy. Other major thinkers have contributed work that grew out of Freud’s legacy, while others developed new theories out of opposition to his ideas.

　　In a 2002 review of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century, Sigmund Freud was ranked at number three.

　　Civilization and Its Discontents, written in 1929,is considered one of Freud’s most important and widely read works. In this book, Sigmund Freud enumerates the fundamental tensions between civilization and the individual. The primary conflict stems from the individual’s quest for instinctual freedom and civilization’s contrary demand for conformity and instinctual repression. This process, argues Freud, is an inherent quality of civilization that instills perpetual feelings of discontent in its citizens.

　　The following passage is an excerpt from ChapterⅡof Civilization and Its Discontents.

　　Prompts for Your Reading

　　1.How does Freud define “happiness”?

　　2.What is pleasure principle?

　　3.What does the author mean by “the plan of ‘Creation’”?

　　4.What are sources of suffering that threaten human happiness?

　　5.What is reality principle?

　　6.How many ways are there of avoiding suffering and obtaining happiness? What are they?

　　7.What is meant by the displacements of libido?

　　8.What is Freud’s interpretation of artists’ work?

　　9.What are the factors affecting one’s happiness?

　　10.How many kinds of psychical traits does the author mention? What are their respective ways of seeking happiness?

　　[1] The question of the purpose of human life has been raised countless times; it has never yet received a satisfactory answer and perhaps does not admit of one. Some of those who have asked it have added that if it should turn out that life has no purpose, it would lose all value for them. But this threat alters nothing. It looks, on the contrary, as though one had a right to dismiss the question, for it seems to derive from the human presumptuousness, many other manifestations of which are already familiar to us. Nobody talks about the purpose of the life of animals, unless, perhaps, it may be supposed to lie in being of service to man. But this view is not tenable either, for there are many animals of which man can make nothing, except to describe, classify and study them; and innumerable species of animals have escaped even this use, since they existed and became extinct before man set eyes on them. Once again, only religion can answer the question of the purpose of life. One can hardly be wrong in concluding that the idea of life having a meaning stands and falls with the religious system.

　　[2] We will therefore turn to the less ambitious question of what men themselves show by their behavior to be the purpose and intention of their lives. What do they demand of life and wish to achieve in it? The answer to this can hardly be in doubt. They strive after happiness; they want to become happy and to remain so. This endeavor has two sides, a positive and a negative aim. It aims, on the one hand, at an absence of pain and unpleasure, and, on the other, at the experiencing of strong feelings of pleasure. In its narrower sense the word “happiness” only relates to the last. In conformity with this dichotomy in his aims, man’s activity develops in two directions, according as it seeks to realize — in the main, or even exclusively — the one or the other of these aims.

　　[3] As we see, what decides the purpose of life is simply the program of the pleasure principle1. This principle dominates the operation of the mental apparatus from the start. There can be no doubt about its efficacy, and yet its program is at loggerheads with the whole world, with the macrocosm as much as with the microcosm. There is no possibility at all of its being carried through; all the regulations of the universe run counter to it. One feels inclined to say that the intention that man should be “happy” is not included in the plan of “Creation”. What we call happiness in the strictest sense comes from the (preferably sudden) satisfaction of needs which have been dammed up to a high degree, and it is from its nature only possible as an episodic phenomenon. When any situation that is desired by the pleasure principle is prolonged, it only produces a feeling of mild contentment. We are so made that we can derive intense enjoyment only from a contrast and very little from a state of things. Thus our possibilities of happiness are already restricted by our constitution. Unhappiness is much less difficult to experience. We are threatened with suffering from three directions: from our own body; which is doomed to decay and dissolution and which cannot even do without pain and anxiety as warning signals; from the external world, which may rage against us with overwhelming and merciless forces of destruction; and finally from our relations to other men. The suffering which comes from this last source is perhaps more painful to us than any other. We tend to regard it as a kind of gratuitous addition, although it cannot be any less fatefully inevitable than the suffering which comes from elsewhere.

　　[4] It is no wonder if, under the pressure of these possibilities of suffering, men are accustomed to moderate their claims to happiness — just as the pleasure principle itself, indeed, under the influence of the external world, changed into the more modest reality principle2—if a man thinks himself happy merely to have escaped unhappiness or to have survived his suffering, and if in general the task of avoiding suffering pushes that of obtaining pleasure into the background. Reflection shows that the accomplishment of this task can be attempted along very different paths; and all these paths have been recommended by the various schools of worldly wisdom and put into practice by men. An unrestricted satisfaction of every need presents itself as the most enticing method of conducting one’s life, but it means putting enjoyment before caution, and soon brings its own punishment. The other methods, in which avoidance of unpleasure is the main purpose, are differentiated according to the source of unpleasure to which their attention is chiefly turned. Some of these methods are extreme and some moderate; some are one-sided and some attack the problem simultaneously at several points. Against the suffering which may come upon one from human relationships the readiest safeguard is voluntary isolation, keeping oneself aloof from other people. The happiness which can be achieved along this path is, as we see, the happiness of quietness. Against the dreaded external world one can only defend oneself by some kind of turning away from it, if one intends to solve the task by oneself. There is, indeed, another and better path: that of becoming a member of the human community, and, with the help of a technique guided by science, going over to the attack against nature and subjecting her to the human will. Then one is working with all for the good of all. But the most interesting methods of averting suffering are those which seek to influence our own organism. In the last analysis, all suffering is nothing else than sensation; it only exists in so far as we feel it, and we only feel it in consequence of certain ways in which our organism is regulated.

　　...

　　[5] Another technique for fending off suffering is the employment of the displacements of libido3 which our mental apparatus permits of and through which its function gains so much in flexibility. The task here is that of shifting the instinctual aims in such a way that they cannot come up against frustration from the external world. In this, sublimation4 of the instincts lends its assistance. One gains the most if one can sufficiently heighten the yield of pleasure from the sources of psychical and intellectual work. When that is so, fate can do little against one. A satisfaction of this kind, such as an artist’s joy in creating, in giving his phantasies body, or a scientist’s in solving problems or discovering truths, has a special quality which we shall certainly one day be able to characterize in metapsychological terms. At present we can only say figuratively that such satisfactions seem “finer and higher”. But their intensity is mild as compared with that derived from the sating of crude and primary instinctual impulses; it does not convulse our physical being. And the weak point of this method is that it is not applicable generally: it is accessible to only a few people. It presupposes the possession of special dispositions and gifts winch are far from being common to any practical degree. And even to the few who do possess them, this method cannot give complete protection from suffering. It creates no impenetrable armor against the arrows of fortune, and it habitually fails when the source of suffering is a person’s own body.

　　...

　　[6] In spite of the incompleteness, I will venture on a few remarks as a conclusion to our enquiry. The program of becoming happy, which the pleasure principle imposes on us, cannot be fulfilled; yet we must not — indeed, we cannot — give up our efforts to bring it nearer to fulfillment by some means or other. Very different paths may be taken in that direction, and we may give priority either to the positive aspect of the aim, that of gaining pleasure, or to its negative one, that of avoiding unpleasure. By none of these paths can we attain all that we desire. Happiness, in the reduced sense in which we recognize it as possible, is a problem of the economics5 of the individual’s libido. There is no golden rule which applies to everyone: every man must find out for himself in what particular fashion he can be saved. All kinds of different factors will operate to direct his choice. It is a question of how much real satisfaction he can expect to get from the external world, how far he is led to make himself independent of it, and finally, how much strength he feels he has for altering the world to suit his wishes. In this, his psychical constitution will play a decisive part, irrespectively of the external circumstances. The man who is predominantly erotic will give first preference to his emotional relationships to other people; the narcissistic6 man, who inclines to be self-sufficient, will seek his main satisfactions in his internal mental processes; the man of action will never give up the external world on which he can try out his strength... A person who is born with a specially unfavorable instinctual constitution, and who has not properly undergone the transformation and rearrangement of his libidinal components which is indispensable for later achievements, will find it hard to obtain happiness from his external situation, especially if he is faced with tasks of some difficulty. As a last technique of living, which will at least bring him substitutive satisfactions, he is offered that of a flight into neurotic illness — a flight which he usually accomplishes when he is still young. The man who sees his pursuit of happiness come to nothing in later years can still find consolation in the yield of pleasure of chronic intoxication; or he can embark on the desperate attempt at rebellion seen in a psychosis7.

　　[7] Religion restricts this play of choice and adaptation, since it imposes equally on everyone its own path to the acquisition of happiness and protection from suffering. Its technique consists in depressing the value of life and distorting the picture of the real world in a delusional manner — which presupposes an intimidation of the intelligence. At this price, by forcibly fixing them in a state of psychical infantilism8 and by drawing them into a massdelusion, religion succeeds in sparing many people an individual neurosis9. But hardly anything more. There are, as we have said, many paths which may lead to such happiness as is attainable by men, but there is none which does so for certain. Even religion cannot keep its promise. If the believer finally sees himself obliged to speak of God’s“inscrutable decrees”, he is admitting that all that is left to him as a last possible consolation and source of pleasure in his suffering is an unconditional submission. And if he is prepared for that, he could probably have spared himself the detour he has made.

　　Notes

　　1.pleasure principle: Our most fundamental striving is toward pleasure and away from pain. Pleasure is what we feel when some kind of tension is relieved.

　　2.reality principle: the principle obeyed by the ego, which attempts to reconcile the id’s desires with reality.

　　3.displacement of libido: originally, displacement referred to the phenomenon in dreams in which emotionally dangerous information is expressed in less dangerous images and feelings. It also refers to a redirection of libidinal energy from one object to another. libido: (psychoanalysis) a Freudian term for sexual urge or desire; the energy latent in the id.It obeys laws of economy — we only have so much libido: if we invest it in one area, we draw it away from another. Libido is often associated with sexual objects but, in instances of sublimation or displacement, it can be directed at any activity.

　　4.sublimation: a psychological process that occurs when sexual energy is redirected toward a different, often “higher” aim, such as painting or writing.

　　5.economics: Freud uses the term economy broadly to denote the manner in which libidinal energy is distributed in a given instance.

　　6.narcissistic: derived from the Greek mythological figure, Narcissus, who fell in love with his own reflection. Narcissism is the libidinal energy that we invest in ourselves.

　　7.psychosis: a mental disorder that involves outright rejection or denial of reality; a conflict between ego and reality. Psychotic conditions include schizophrenia, very severe depression, and manic-depressive disorder. 精神错乱

　　8.infantilism: an abnormal condition in which an older child or adult retains infantile characteristics幼稚病

　　9.neurosis: a psychological conflict between one’s conscious and unconscious selves(between ego and id). Results in psychological discomfort and often in specific neurotic symptoms that are related to the underlying problem.神经症

　　Questions for Further Thinking

　　1.At the end of Paragraph 1, Freud claims that “only religion can answer the question of the purpose of life... that the idea of life having a purpose stands and falls with the religious system”. Do you agree or disagree? What defines the purpose of life for you?

　　2.What do you think is the difference between happiness and pleasure?

　　3.The author claims that “we are so made that we can derive intense enjoyment from a contrast and very little from a state of things” (Paragraph 3). Do you think what he claims of human nature is justified?

　　4.Freud says that we are threatened with suffering from three directions: from our own body, from the external world, and finally from our relations to other men. Do you think this is all-inclusive? Can anything other than these three also cause suffering?

　　5.Happiness, in Freud’s view, can be understood as a problem of the economics of the individual’s libido. What is your interpretation of this claim?

　　6.The author interprets an artist’s joy in creating as sublimination of the instincts. To what extent do you agree to this? What do you think is the motivation behind an artist’s creative work?

　　7.The author thinks that a person’s psychical constitution plays a decisive part in determining one’s happiness, irrespectively of the external circumstances. What is your understanding of that psychical constitution? What accounts for differences of that makeup in people?

　　After-reading Assignment

　　Oral Work

　　1.One source of human sufferings is from our own body, which is doomed to decay and dissolution. In other words, death is the fate of human beings; human life is short and fragile. Do you think it is a blessing or a curse? Divide yourselves into two groups and have a debate on this issue.

　　2.In the book Civilization and Its Discontents, from which our passage is taken, Freud elaborates on the conflict between individual’s quest for instinctual freedom and civilization’s contrary demand for conformity. Discuss with your classmates the issue of how one can make freedom and conformity compatible. Then report your results to the class.

　　3.According to Freud, the three sources of unhappiness are our own body, the external world, and our relations to other men. In fact, these are also major conflicts manifest in literary works. First share with your classmates in groups one novel that exemplifies one of the conflicts as its main plot. Then choose a spokesperson to report the best one in your group to the class.

　　4.In the book, Freud claims that religion dictates a simple path to happiness. In so doing, religion spares the masses of their individual neuroses, but Freud sees few other benefits. What do you think is the relation between happiness and religion? Give a 2-minute presentation on your point.

　　Written Work

　　1.In the two passages of this unit, both Russell and Freud analyze the cause of unhappiness and its solutions. Make a comparative study of the two passages, and write an essay of about 400 words on their similarities and differences.

　　2.In the essay, Freud defines “happiness” in its varied senses — the narrower sense, the strictest sense, and the reduced sense. Write an essay of about 300 words, analyzing and commenting on the implications of different meanings of happiness, and giving your personal understanding of happiness.

　　3.After a careful study of the essay, make a written outline of it. Then based on your outline, write a summary of about 150 words.

　　4.The two words “happiness” and “pleasure” are often used interchangeably, but there should be differences from both philosophical and mundane perspectives. Make a survey of their connotations and interpretations on the internet. Then write a 400-word essay, synthesizing and critically analyzing them.

　　Further Readings

　　The Conquest of Happiness by Bertrand Russell

　　Civilization and Its Discontents by Sigmund Freud

　　Stumbling on Happiness by Daniel Gilbert

　　Happier: Learn the Secrets to Daily Joy and Lasting Fulfillment by Tal Ben-Shahar

　　《西方幸福论——从梭伦到费尔巴哈》，冯俊科著